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The Resource Management Act 1991 (RMA) is the
principal regulatory instrument controlling the
taking and use of geothermal fluid and energy
in New Zealand. Most of the large geothermal projects
are now operating under resource consents applied
for and issued under the RMA, the first of which
were those for Ngawha. For some projects which
were in operation before the RMA, and which were
operating under older instruments, consents have
subsequently been obtained. Water rights previously
granted have generally been replaced by resource
consents.
There have been various amendments to the RMA,
one of these being implemented through the passing
of the Resource Management (Energy and Climate
Change) Amendment Act 2004. This defined geothermal
energy as renewable for the purposes of the Act,
and required councils to consider the benefits
to be derived from the use and development of
renewable energy.
The RMA has come under close scrutiny in recent
years. Key problems identified for major projects
include: time delays (and the costs associated
with those time delays), and variation of the
quality of decision-making, particularly in relation
to identification and weighing of matters of national
importance. Process costs and the quality of public
participation are also of concern.
The Government has given consideration as to
whether various councils could be usefully guided
by National Policy Statements (NPS's). Potential
NPS's which could impact on geothermal development
include statements on generation, transmission
or biodiversity.
All geothermal resource in New Zealand are subject
to Waitangi Tribunal claims, most notably the
so-called "Volcanic Interior Plateau"
claim. While it may be some time before these
claims are resolved, the Tribunal has begun to
hear evidence for these claims and a special settlement
has been made with Tuwharetoa Ki Kawerau (TKK)
for the Kawerau geothermal resource. Most of the
recent geothermal developments have whole or partial
Maori ownership of station or steamfield so the
claims do not appear to be an obstacle for developers.
Resource consents are issued and administered
by Regional Councils, although District Councils
do have a role to be aware of the effects under
section 35 (5) (j) of the RMA. There are only
three Regional Councils whose areas of responsibility
include high temperature geothermal systems.
In the north, the Northland
Regional Council is responsible for the Ngawha
geothermal system, which is the sole high temperature
geothermal system in New Zealand outside the Taupo
Volcanic Zone.
The Waikato Regional Council, Environment
Waikato, has responsibility for most of the
large high temperature geothermal systems in the
Taupo Volcanic Zone and therefore in New Zealand,
including all of the geothermal power plants except
Kawerau. There are also many undeveloped geothermal
resources in this area. Its area includes many
low temperature fields. The draft Waikato Regional
Plan includes a geothermal module which will provide
guidelines for future geothermal developments
when it becomes operative.
Environment
Bay of Plenty has responsibility for the remainder
of the Taupo Volcanic Zone. While the only large-scale
development in their area is at Kawerau, there
are many smaller direct use applications at a
number of fields in their area, including Rotorua
and Tauranga. At Rotorua there is a complex geothermal
management situation involving many small direct
users that are regulated by the Rotorua
Geothermal Regional Plan. There are other
undeveloped geothermal resources in their area
of responsibility.
The effects of geothermal extraction at Wairakei,
particularly subsidence effects, are closely monitored
by the Taupo District Council.
http://www.taupodc.govt.nz/news/council+welcomes+tougher+geothermal+rules.htm
http://www.taupodc.govt.nz/news/geothermal+fluid+re-injection+sought.htm
http://www.taupodc.govt.nz/news/strict+conditions+attached+to+wairakei+consents.htm
The NZ Geothermal Association has identified
the procedures which are currently being adopted
under the Resource Management Act (1992) as the
single largest obstacle to further geothermal
development. The Association is supportive of
the principles of the RMA, but not its current
procedures and implementation. Recent geothermal
projects in New Zealand have been small in comparison
both to the size of the resources and to developments
overseas, largely because of regulatory constraints.
This, in turn has led to dis-economies of scale.
The regulatory process leads to long delays which
impose a significant up-front cost on projects,
reducing their financial viability.
The majority of New Zealand's high temperature
geothermal resources are within the Waikato Region.
A Draft Regional Plan has been under discussion
for some years. Formal submissions were received
in late 2000, leading to release of the Proposed
Plan in late 2001. Further revisions of both the
Plan and the Policy Statement have been proposed
and these are now subject to appeal at the Environment
Court. The Plan now has legal status, in that
it will eventually become operative in its present
form subject only to references to the Environment
Court.
Environment Waikato has classified the Region's
geothermal systems into five categories with a
different management approach for each category.
Classification is based on ranking each system's
characteristics and aims to balance development
with the protection of highly valued surface features.
Protected systems contain vulnerable geothermal
features, and their protected status ensures that
underground geothermal fluids cannot be extracted
and that the surface features are not damaged
by unsuitable land uses. In systems classified
as Limited Development and Research, small takes
that will not damage surface features are allowed.
In geothermal systems classified Development,
development is permitted subject to obtaining
resource consents and the environmental impact
being acceptable. Overall, the classification
reduces the national geothermal resource that
is available for development.
Individual geothermal systems are classified
by Environment Waikato as follows:
| Classification |
Geothermal
field |
| Development |
Horohoro, Mangakino, Ngatamariki,
Mokai-Ongaroto, Ohaaki-Broadlands, Rotokawa,
Wairakei-Tauhara |
| Limited Development |
Atiamuri, Tokaanu-Waihi-Hipaua |
| Research |
Reporoa, Te Kopia |
| Protected |
Orakei Korako, Horomatangi,
Taupo, Waikite-Waiotapu-Waimangu,Tongariro |
| Small |
Numerous low temperature systems
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Definition Of Surface
Geothermal Features Environment Waikato
Regional Policy Statement
| Molten sulphur-producing spring:
A hot spring whose water supply passes
through elemental sulphur bearing rock
at a temperature sufficiently high to
melt the sulphur (119°C) and bring
it to the surface. |
| Mud geyser: Any naturally occurring
geothermally heated mud pool that occasionally
or frequently erupts. The eruption produces
an intermittent or continuous discharge
caused by the evolution of a phase dominated
by steam or other gases. This must be
vigorous enough to forcefully raise
liquid mud by surging, boiling, throwing,
splashing, or jetting it into the air
above a static water level. This includes
mud volcanoes exhibiting this behaviour.
The area covered by a mud geyser includes
the mud pool, its banks, and any mud
formations built up by the ejection
of mud from the pool. |
| Geyser: Any naturally occurring
geothermal spring that occasionally
or frequently erupts producing an intermittent
or continuous discharge by the evolution
of a phase dominated by steam or other
gases, vigorous enough to eject forcefully
liquid water by surging, boiling, throwing,
splashing, or jetting it into the air
above a static water level or vent opening.
This includes hot water geysers, perpetual
spouters, soda geysers, and crypto-geysers.
The area of a geyser comprises that
of the spring basin and the area covered
(perhaps intermittently) by surface
water composed of the undiluted discharge
from the geyser, and by any sinter deposits
created by that discharge. |
| Sinter-depositing spring: Any
naturally occurring geothermal spring
that deposits sinter on surfaces covered
by its outflow, or any submerged geothermal
spring that would be likely to deposit
sinter if it were no longer submerged.
The area of a sinter-depositing spring
comprises that of the spring basin,
together with the area covered by any
surface water composed of the undiluted
outflow from the pool and any sinter
deposits created by that outflow. |
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Recent sinter: Any sinter
body that has received natural sinter
deposition since 1900 but which is
no longer receiving natural sinter
deposition. This includes carbonate
sinters (travertine). The area of
a recent sinter body consists of that
of all interconnected sinter in a
single occurrence and the land formations
underlying it.
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Significant geothermal habitat:
Any area classified as being of International,
National, Regional or District significance
in the document "Geothermal Vegetation
of the Waikato Region - Revised and
Expanded 2003", dated June 2003,
prepared by Wildlands Consultants
Ltd for Environment Waikato, or any
geothermal area that meets the criteria
for determining significant indigenous
vegetation or significant habitat
of indigenous fauna in Appendix III
of the Waikato Regional Policy Statement.
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Superheated fumarole: Any
naturally occurring vent, including
those found underwater, whose main
discharge consists of steam and other
gases of geothermal origin with a
temperature greater than the local
boiling temperature of water. The
area of a fumarole consists of the
vent, any surface accumulating mineral
deposits derived from its gases, and
any ecosystems dependent on the heat
and fluid flowing from the vent.
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Geothermal wetland, lake, pool,
or stream: Any naturally occurring
wetland, lake, pool, or stream, whose
chemical or temperature profile is
so influenced by natural geothermal
input that it either provides habitat
for thermotolerant, thermophilic,
or extremophilic organisms, or contains
water hotter than 30°C. The area
covered by a geothermal wetland, lake,
pool, or stream consists of the water
body, its bed and banks, any mineral
deposits derived from the water body
or its outflow, and any thermotolerant,
thermophilic, or extremophilic ecosystems
dependent on it.
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Hydrothermal eruption crater:
Any naturally occurring crater produced
by the explosive boiling of geothermal
water without the direct involvement
of near-surface magma, and by the
consequent ejection of material derived
from the rock matrix. The area of
a hydrothermal eruption crater comprises
that of the crater, its sides, and
the ejecta deposited around the crater.
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Mud pool: Any naturally occurring
basin of turbid water or mud heated
(or recently heated) by geothermal
processes. The area of a mud pool
comprises that of the pool itself,
its banks, and any mud formations
built up by the ejection of mud from
the pool.
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Culturally significant feature:
Any geothermal surface feature, whether
artificial, natural, or modified that
is of outstanding cultural heritage
significance.
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Environment Bay of Plenty has currently classified
its geothermal fields into three management groups
and these will shortly be expanded into five management
groups. Group 1 is identified for complete preservation
and includes Waimangu/Rotomahana/Tarawera, White
Island and Whale Island. Group 2 specifically
relates to the Rotorua geothermal field, with
its own operative plan. Group 3 requires protection
of certain surface features but may allow limited
development of Tikitere/Ruahine, Taheke, Rotokawa/Mokoia
Island and Rotoma/Tokorangi. Group 4 is intended
for development and includes Kawerau, Lake Rotoiti
and Rotoma/Puhi Puhi. Group 5 covers a range of
low temperature resources.
Links
http://www.med.govt.nz/ers/electric.html
http://www.electricitycommission.govt.nz/
http://www.eeca.org.nz/
http://www.climatechange.govt.nz/
http://www.mfe.govt.nz/
Availabilities
and Costs of Renewable Energy: 2005 Edition
Renewable
Energy – Industry Status Report on Hydro, Geothermal
& Wind Energy
East
Harbour - Heating and Electricity Generation Costs
Regulators
http://www.ew.govt.nz/enviroinfo/geothermal/index.htm
http://www.boprc.govt.nz/Water/Geothermal/Geothermal-Resource.asp
Bay
of Plenty Proposed Regional Water and Land Plan
Bay
of Plenty Regional Policy Statement
Rotorua
Geothermal Regional Plan
http://www.nrc.govt.nz
http://www.rdc.govt.nz
http://www.taupodc.govt.nz
Publications
Ministry of Economic Development. New
Zealand Energy Outlook to 2025.
Centre for Advanced Engineering 2003. Distributed
generation: a study of opportunities. CAE Comments
02.
Centre for Advanced Engineering 2003. New
Zealand's energy future: a sustainable energy
future after Maui. CAE Comments 03.
Lawless, J V 2000: A review of resource consent
conditions for large-scale geothermal developments
In New Zealand. New Zealand Geothermal Association
Annual Seminar, Taupo.
White, BR 2003. Some recent and current Government
initiatives related to geothermal energy. Proceedings
25th NZ Geothermal Workshop.
See Also Other Investment Climate
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